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The Impact of COVID-19 on Graduates’ Job Searching Behaviour in the UK
Executive Summary
This research aims to study the recession caused by COVID-19 on graduates’ job searching behaviour. It examines causal relationship between self-esteem, job search self-efficacy, perceived control and job searching behaviour in the context of COVID-19 and the UK.
This dissertation used positivism philosophy to conduct a quantitative research. Aligning with positivism, it adopted deductive approach, survey and mono-method. Also, this research applied cross-sectional time horizon and collected primary data by 197 questionnaires. The numerical data has been analysed by regression, correlation and frequency analysis in a statistical way. This research collected 197 valid questionnaires.
This research finds the factors affecting job searching behaviours including self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control. Also, it shows the evidences that self-esteem and perceived control have a significant relationship with job searching behaviours. This means that COVID-19 did not strongly compromise UK graduates’ self-esteem and self-efficacy. Meanwhile, the research discovers that more UK graduates are good in terms of self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control. They have confidence in finding their desirable jobs even during the COVID-19.
Self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control are important for UK graduates to have good job searching behaviours during COVID-19. This may be more practical to put finding a job into the first place rather than saving self-esteem during the crisis. Also, UK graduates should have a positive mind, develop their employment capabilities, interview skills and resume. More importantly, they should develop an achievable, workable and realistic employment plan for their job searching behaviour. Further research is advised to adopt interpretivism to discover the variables affecting job searching behaviour. By interviews, it can understand how exactly UK graduates to search and find their jobs. Also, further research can investigate how to help UK graduates to find jobs based their self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control.
1.0 Chapter One - Introduction
This research aims to study the recession caused by COVID-19 on graduates’ job
2.0 Chapter Two - Literature Review
2.1 The Impacts of Job Searching Behaviours
2.2.2 Job Search Self-efficacy
Chapter Three - Research Methodology
3.2 Research Philosophy – Positivism
6.2 Recommendations for Further Research
1.0 Chapter One - Introduction
1.1 Research Context
The outbreak of COVID-19 has shocked the world and caused economic recession, which challenges the job searching of UK graduates. Most of countries have been using lockdown policy to restrict the burst of COVID-19. Meanwhile, most of global economic activities have been shut down while business and investment confidence have been largely frustrated (Business wire, 2020). According to IMF (2020), global economy is estimated to drop 4.9% in 2020. The COVID-19 has caused significantly negative influences on activity in the first half of 2020 while economic recovery is slower than expectation. The 2021 global GDP is projected to 6.5% lower than in the pre-COVID-19 estimation (IMF, 2020). The UK’s GDP is estimated to drop 9% in 2020 (Allas et al., 2020). According to Office for National Statistics (ONS) (2020), it is predicted that the UK GDP dropped 20.4% in the first quarter of 2020 after it suffered a 2.2% decline in the second quarter of 2020. Under such context, many UK firms have been shut down and their cash flow have been under heavy pressure without cash inflow. Under such context, they certainly will not recruit any employees. Instead, unemployment rate shows a rising trend due to the outbreak of COVID-19. As figure 1 shows, the unemployment rate increased to 3.9% in January, grew to 4.0% in February, and dropped back 3.9% in March 2020 (Trading Economics, 2020).
Figure 1: UK Unemployment Rate
(Source from: Trading Economics, 2020)
Despite of the fact that the rise of unemployment rate is not significant, UK job opportunities have been significantly shrunk (Goodley and Ambrose, 2020). There are fewer companies which are willing to offer job opportunities and have new job position for graduates. 300,000 jobs in the UK are risky due to COVID-19 (Hull, 2020). Thus, UK graduates have to compete with experienced and skilled workers who lose their job to get employed.
Under such context, it is meaningful to study job search behaviours of gradates. By studying job search behaviour, it can understand how graduates to access and grasp job opportunities (Barber et al., 1994).
1.2 Research Aim
This research aims to study the recession caused by COVID-19 on graduates’ job searching behaviour. It examines causal relationship between self-esteem, job search self-efficacy, perceived control and job searching behaviour in the context of COVID-19 and the UK. It focuses on how self-esteem, job search self-efficacy and perceived control affect job searching behaviour during COVID-19. The expected results show the impacts of the coronavirus on self-esteem, job search self-efficacy, perceived control and thus on job searching behaviour. Based on the results, the research can offer graduates and employers suggestions so as to help them and contribute to employment environment in the UK.
The research questions are showed in the below:
· What is self-esteem, job search self-efficacy and perceived control of UK graduates in during COVID-19?
· How do self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control affect job searching behaviour of UK graduates in the context of COVID-19?
Research objectives:
· To develop a literature review that critically discusses the casual relationship between self-esteem, job search self-efficacy as well as perceived control and job searching behaviour
· To measure self-esteem, job search self-efficacy as well as perceived control of the UK graduates and the casual relationship by questionnaires
· To discuss the findings of the questionnaires with literature review to make conclusions and recommendations
1.3 Research Significance
Many previous studies have identified job searching behaviour (Steffy et al., 1989; Breaugh, 1992; Blau, 1994; and McArdle et al., 2007). Self-esteem has a positive relationship with job searching behaviour (Kanfer et al., 2001) and re-employment (Kasl, 1983; and Winefield and Tiggeman, 1985). Nevertheless, the impact of COVID-19 on their self-esteem is uncertain. Also, there is an argument that there is no evidence showing a link between self-esteem and unemployment (Water and Moore, 2002). Therefore, it is significant to study the impact of COVID-19 on UK graduate’s self-esteem and the relationship between their current self-esteem and job searching behaviour. Moreover, there are two contrasting arguments about the relationship between self-efficacy in the process of job search and job search intensity. Some studies found positive relationship (Saks and Ashforth, 1999 and Wanberg et al., 1999), whereas Brown et al. (2006) did not found it. To address two contrasting arguments and identify the impact of COVID-19 on graduates’ job search efficacy, it is significant to conduct this dissertation. Additionally, this dissertation finds that there are very few previous studies investigating the impact of perceived control on job searching behaviour. Therefore, it is significant to enrich the understanding on the impact.
However, this dissertation finds no previous study investigating UK graduates’ job search behaviour during economic crisis and shutdown of businesses. The expected result of this research can show what is UK graduates’ self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control and their impact on job searching behaviour. Then, the research can make recommendations on the UK graduates to help them to find a job during and post COVID-19.
1.4 Research Outline
This research clarifies its context, significance and purposes in Chapter One. It discusses existing literature review related with job search behaviours, self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control (Chapter Two). Then, it justifies the research methodologies used by this dissertation. Thirdly, the research analysed data from questionnaires by statistical analysis. In the Chapter Five, it discusses the finding from primary data with literature review. Finally, it summarises the research results and makes recommendations.
2.0 Chapter Two - Literature Review
This chapter critically discusses knowledge and theories related with job searching behaviours and reveals self-esteem, self-efficacy, and perceived control.
2.1 The Impacts of Job Searching Behaviours
Job search is an important component of the job choice process as it strongly affects the opportunity group of choices including a job and an employer (Barber et al., 1994). This means that job search is related with graduates’ choices of a job and an employer. Therefore, job search is the pre-condition allowing a participant to make a good job choice.
Rynes et al. (1991) find that personal-company fit is related with job and organisational characteristics, communications with organisational representatives and other members in a research that interviewed university graduates. Also, Saks and Ashforth (1997) show that job seekers’ perceived value is consistent with their chosen company. Job seekers pay attention to person-company fit in their job searching process and formal job information they acquired affect the fit perceptions (Saks and Ashforth, 1997).
Job search is associated with the quality of employment gained (Schwab et al., 1987). Wanberg et al. (2000) highlight that the correlation between job search and quality of employment acquired is stronger in good economic environment. Saks and Ashforth (1997) highlight that there is a positive relationship between job attitude and better perception of persona-job fit as well as person- company fit. In other words, subjective and objective person-job fit and person-company contribute to job attitudes and reduce job turnover rate (Saks and Ashforth, 1997).
In the model of job search, to have more quality job alternatives and obtain employment results is important to gain information about job opportunities and increase the intensity of job search and job information seeking (Schwab et al., 1987). Job search intensity is associated with job search results (Breaugh, 1992). Blau (1993) highlight that job searching behaviour is related with their time and effort.
2.2 Relevant Research
Individual differences are related with job search behaviours and results (Steffy et al., 1989). In other words, personal factors and characteristics are related with job search behaviour (Breaugh, 1992). There are three psychological variables that are associated with job search process including self-esteem, job search self-efficiency and perception of control over job search outcomes (Blau, 1994). McArdle et al. (2007) highlight that psycho-social contract of an individual is related with his or her employment.
2.2.1 Self-esteem
Job search intensity is highly associated with high self-esteem (Kanfer et al., 2001). Self-esteem is associated with social job search behaviours (Barber et al., 1994). To be specific, self-esteem affects how a job seeker choose a job source and interview assessments and search results. Self-esteem has a positive relationship with assertive job-seeking behaviour (Schmit et al., 1993). Self-esteem is viewed as a prominent individual difference factor in job search theory and research. McArdle et al. (2007) illustrate that self-esteem has a negative relationship with unemployment. Nevertheless, high employability acts as a buffer and avoid people from suffering from low self-esteem during unemployment. An employable worker who are proactive and adaptable and have a strong career identity tends to observe positive factors from unemployment. Meanwhile, the individual also tends to the job loss as critical reflection on career identity and direction (Eby and Buch, 1995). The individual may adopt this unemployment as a chance to push change and reinforce one’s career identity (Fugate et al., 2004). As a result, those individuals with strong capability on employability tend to maintain a positive self-esteem than those individuals without jobs. Eden and Aviram (1993) highlight that one of determinant of self-esteem is a person’s assessment of his or her self-concept (Shaffer, 2002). However, those people lost their job may have a low self-esteem that negatively affects their job searching behaviour (Eby and Buch, 1995). Those persons who have high self-esteem on employability tend to have a strong career identity. Also, they believe that they have a broad career opportunity. Price and Fang (2002) highlight that individuals with higher education background tend to maintain a greater expectation of re-employment.
Many researches find that there is positive relationship between self-esteem and re-employment (Kasl, 1983; and Winefield and Tiggeman, 1985). Kasl (1982) illustrates that self-esteem acts an important role in re-employment. Unemployment is generally related with low self-esteem. Unemployment hinders an individual to get re-employed (Kasl, 1982). On the other hand, Water and Moore (2002) did not find evidence supporting connection between self-esteem and re-employment. These researches focus on self-esteem and re-employment. However, this dissertation focuses on UK graduates’ job searching behaviour. Also, they have been experiencing a global crisis and economic recession caused by COVID-19. Thus, it is significant to investigate the UK graduates’ self-esteem to understand the impact of COVID-19 on them and the relationship between their current self-esteem and job searching behaviour.
2.2.2 Job Search Self-efficacy
Job search self-efficacy is considered as another important factor measuring individual difference. It has a strong relationship with job search behaviour and employment status (Bandura, 1997). Ellis and Taylor (1983) finds that self-efficacy in job searching process has a relationship with job search behaviour and results that is associated with job seekers’ motivation and search satisfaction. Furthermore, Kanfer and Hulin (1985) highlight that job search self-efficacy has a positive relationship with job search behaviours. Job seekers who got employment 4 weeks after they lost job had a higher job search self-efficacy (Kanfer and Hulin, 1985). The initial level of general self-efficacy among job seekers have a positive relationship with job search behaviour and reemployment (Eden and Aviram, 1993). Schmit et al. (1993) highlight that job search self-efficacy contributes to assertive job-seeking behaviours.
Fort (2011) also investigate the impact of self-efficacy and job search behaviours. Job searching self-efficacy has a positive relationship with job search planning and job search behaviours (Fort, 2011). There is a strong impact of self-efficacy on job search intensity (Fort, 2011). Meanwhile, career self-efficacy positively affects the design of career objectives that facilitate job searching performance (Fort, 2011). Bandura (1997) also illustrate that career goal contributes to job search performance and quality of employment. Zikic and Klehe (2006) highlight that self-efficacy has positive impacts on career planning. Creed et al. (2003) highlight that job search self-efficacy is related with attending professional skills development program. Those individuals with low job-efficacy and low self-esteem tend to have a lower performance in training programs. With a low level of self-esteem and job-efficacy, individuals feel difficult to attend a professional training and get re-employed (Creed et al., 2003).
However, there is an argument about the relationship between self-efficacy in the process of job search and job search intensity. Some scholars find that job search self-efficacy has a positive relationship with job search intensity (Saks and Ashforth, 1999 and Wanberg et al., 1999). Wanberg et al. (1996) found that those employees who suffered a laid off tend to have a low self-efficacy which therefore cannot positively affect their positive impacts. This means that people tend to have a low self-efficacy when they experience negative affairs. Wanberg et al. (1996)’s finding may be related with the impact of COVID-19 on UK graduates. When they experienced COVID-19, they may show a low self-efficacy. Meanwhile, Brown et al. (2006) did not found a significant relationship between job searching behaviour and self-efficacy. To address two contrasting arguments and identify the impact of COVID-19 on graduates’ job search efficacy, it is significant to conduct this dissertation.
2.2.3 Perceived Control
Mardiyono and Songwathana (2011) define that perceived control is viewed as a personality characteristic that promote psychological adjustment. Meanwhile, Breaugh (1992) argue that personal factors and characteristics are related with job search behaviour. Therefore, perceived control may be related with graduates’ job searching behaviour. Wanberg (1997) highlight that job search research is job seeker’s perceived control over job search results. Perceived control is prominent in competitive and difficult labour market in which job seekers feel that their likelihood of getting employment is over their control. High level of perceived situational control is related with job seeking behaviour (Wanberg, 1997). Hence, perceived control is a prominent factor of job search behaviours and results (Wanberg, 1997). This dissertation finds that there are very few previous studies investigating the impact of perceived control on job searching behaviour. Therefore, it is significant to enrich the understanding on the impact.
Chapter Three - Research Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter justifies the research methodologies used by this dissertation. The research onion in the below shows the specific research methodologies used in a social research (Neuman, 2005). In accordance with research onion, this dissertation used positivism philosophy to conduct a quantitative research. Aligning with positivism, it adopted deductive approach, survey and mono-method. Also, this research applied cross-sectional time horizon and collected primary data by 197 questionnaires. The numerical data has been analysed by regression, correlation and frequency analysis in a statistical way.
Figure 2: Research Onion
(Source from: Saunders et al., 2009)
3.2 Research Philosophy – Positivism
This research used positivism as its research philosophy. By this philosophy, this research used scientific approach to study the impact of COVID-19 on job searching behaviour. Positivism has many benefits that contribute to credibility, validity and reliability of research results (Gill and Johnson, 2002). Firstly, positivism focuses on numerical data and prevent researchers to affect their research behaviour by a strict research framework. Secondly, positivism can generate law-like findings which are supported by empirical evidences. The results of positivism-based researches are less arguable and controversial. Thirdly, the quantitative data from positivism-based research can be used in further researches.
Interpretivism however does not fit in this research because it focuses on researchers’ perception. It has a loose research framework allowing researcher to directly experience and perceive a research phenomenon (Collis and Hussey, 2003). However, there are variants in different researchers’ perceptions. Thus, the results of interpretivism-based are arguable.
To generate reliable and valid findings for UK graduates, this research adopts positivism. More importantly, this positivism aligns with quantitative research, deductive approach, surveys, questionnaires and self-selection sampling.
3.3 Deductive Approach
Deductive approach has been applied into this research. The research studies the impact of COVID-19 on job searching behaviour based on existing theories and knowledge. Deductive approach is effective to generate reliable findings based on reliable data and analysis (Kervin, 1999). It adopts a top-down approach by starting with review of existing theories and then collecting data (Robson, 2002). This means that the findings of deductive approach are supported by previous studies. Furthermore, this research does not plan to generate any new theories, which fits deductive approach. Inductive approach is developed for discovering new theories, whereas it may generate invalid result even through it has valid data and analysis (Cohen et al., 2007). This is because the results of inductive approach do not have other supports. To generate reliable results, this research chose deductive approach.
Meanwhile, this research found many previous researches which can be a solid foundation as discussed in the Chapter Two. Therefore, this research used previous knowledge to develop a conceptual framework, as figure 4 shows. In this framework, self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control are dependent variables, whereas job searching behaviour is an independent variable.
Figure 4: Conceptual Framework
Based on the research framework, this research sets the following research hypotheses.
Hypothesis 1
· H0: there is no relationship between self-esteem and job searching behaviour.
· H1: there is a relationship between self-esteem and job searching behaviour.
Hypothesis 2
· H0: there is no relationship between self-efficacy and job searching behaviour.
· H1: there is a relationship between self- efficacy and job searching behaviour.
Hypothesis 3
· H0: there is no relationship between perceived control and job searching behaviour.
· H1: there is a relationship between perceived control and job searching behaviour.
3.4 Surveys
To align with positivism, this research used survey to collect quantitative data. Survey is an effective approach to build a large sample size in short-term (Cohen et al., 2007). It is suitable for this research because the research only has one investigator and limited time. Survey allowed this research to collect enough data within limited resources.
However, other research strategies including case study, focused group and experiment do not fit in this research. Case study focuses on an extremely small sampling size, whereas its findings have low generalisation (Cohen et al., 2007). This means that the results of case study cannot apply to all UK graduates. Meanwhile, it is hard for a single researcher to build a large sample size to create generalised results by focused group and experiment.
3.5 Questionnaires
This research adopted questionnaires as data collect tool which is consistent with positivism philosophy. Also, questionnaire is an effective technique of survey that can collect huge amount of data within short-term (Collis and Hussey, 2003). Questionnaires are effective to collect numerical data for quantitative researches and the data they collected can be fast analysed by statistical software packages (Collis and Hussey, 2003). More importantly, questionnaires are more manageable and economical for student-based researches. They do not require any skills in the process of data collection. By the internet, questionnaires can be spread in a variety of channels including e-mail, social media, and websites.
This research employed online questionnaires that collected 197 valid questionnaires. The research spread the link of the online questionnaire in social media. There are totally 19 questions in this questionnaire including five sections. The first section was designed to measure demographics information of respondents and their graduation situation. The following four sections adopted a Likert-scale to precisely measure UK graduates’ opinion toward questions by five points including strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree and strongly disagree. They measure the following independent variables including self-esteem, self-efficacy, and perceived control and then the dependent variable (job search behaviour).
3.6 Self-selection Sampling
This research applied self-selection sampling technique. By this technique, the research collected primary data from participants who voluntarily got involved. Given that they were willing to offer data, they were unlikely to offer false data or fulfil the questionnaires in an irresponsible way and were not motivated by monetary rewards to offer data. More importantly, along with questionnaires, the technique allowed researchers to build a large sample size in an effective way.
However, probability-sampling techniques do not fit in this research. To implement these techniques, researchers have to develop a frame ensuring that every research population has the same probability to be accessed (Gill and Johnson, 2002). However, it is impossible for the researcher to build such frame covering all UK graduates.
3.7 Data Analysis
This research adopted the following statistical analysis to analyse the data from questionnaires: regression, frequency and correlation analysis. Frequency analysis was applied to analyse each question to understand respondents’ demographic information and situations related with job searching behaviour (Saunders et al., 2009). Also, this research adopted a correlation analysis to investigate the strength of the relationship between independent variables and dependent variable (Saunders et al., 2009). Regression analysis was used to examine the significance of the relationship (Saunders et al., 2009).
3.8 Ethics
This research strictly complies with the University’s ethical policy. It was an anonymous research that did not collect participant’s any information related with their identity. Furthermore, this research ensured that all participants had understood the purpose and aim of this research and their rights before they actually got involved. To reveal this information to participants, this research adopted a consent letter (Shown in Appendix). Moreover, this research was fully honest to participants and did not involve in any deception. More importantly, the research welly protected data by locking it in the researcher’s private laptop. Only the researcher and the University can access this data. Also, the data will be destroyed before 1st October 2020. Meanwhile, this research involved no debriefing to avoid controversial issues.
Chapter Four – Data Analysis
4.1 Introduction
This chapter used the following statistical techniques to address quantitative data from questionnaires including frequency, correlation and regression analysis. Each question in the questionnaire was analysed and each hypothesis is identified.
4.2 Frequency Analysis
4.2.1 Demographics Analysis
The gender distribution is basically balanced including 103 men accounting for 52.3% and 94 women accounting for 47.7%.
|
Gender Distribution |
|||
|
Frequency |
Percent |
||
|
Valid |
Male |
103 |
52.3 |
|
Female |
94 |
47.7 |
|
|
Total |
197 |
100.0 |
|
Table 1
Figure 5
The largest age group is 21-year-olds accounting for 45.7%, followed by 22-year-olds (30.5%), 23-year-olds (10.7%), 24-year-olds (8.1%), and 25-year-olds (5.1%).
|
Age Distribution |
|||||
|
Frequency |
Percent |
Valid Percent |
Cumulative Percent |
||
|
Valid |
21 |
90 |
45.7 |
45.7 |
45.7 |
|
22 |
60 |
30.5 |
30.5 |
76.1 |
|
|
23 |
21 |
10.7 |
10.7 |
86.8 |
|
|
24 |
16 |
8.1 |
8.1 |
94.9 |
|
|
25 |
10 |
5.1 |
5.1 |
100.0 |
|
|
Total |
197 |
100.0 |
100.0 |
||
Table 2
Figure 6
As figure 4 shows, 88.32% of participants will be graduated within months. 11.68% of participants have graduate few months ago. This means that they are facing or have been facing job-searching task.
Figure 7
35.03% of participants expected to have £2,000 monthly income, followed by £2500-£3000 (25.38%), over £3,000 (24.37%), and £2001 to £2500 (15.23%).
Figure 8
35.0% of participants do not have any work experience. However, 27.9% of participants claim that they have very much work experience and 23.4% of participants have only a little. 13.7% of participants have work experience. This means that 65% of participant have a certain level of work experience.
|
Work Experience |
Frequency |
Percent |
|
Yes, I have very much |
55 |
27.9 |
|
Yes, I have it |
27 |
13.7 |
|
Yes, but only a little |
46 |
23.4 |
|
No, not at all |
69 |
35.0 |
Table 3
80.1% of participants feel different levels of pressure: 33.5% felt at little pressure, 31.5% felt pressed and 15.2% under heavy pressure. However, there are still 9.6% of participants who are free from pressure.
|
How much pressure do you feel in the context of economic recession caused by COVID-19? |
|||
|
Frequency |
Percent |
||
|
Valid |
Not at all |
19 |
9.6 |
|
A little pressure |
66 |
33.5 |
|
|
It’s hard to say |
20 |
10.2 |
|
|
I’m pressed |
62 |
31.5 |
|
|
Heavy pressure |
30 |
15.2 |
|
|
Total |
197 |
100.0 |
|
Table 4
89.4% of respondents will not take leisure time before they find a job: 58.4% of them have to get employment as soon as possible and 31.0% of them are not rush.
|
What is your attitude toward employment? |
|||
|
Frequency |
Percent |
||
|
Valid |
I have to find a job as soon as possible. |
115 |
58.4 |
|
I am not rush. |
61 |
31.0 |
|
|
I may take some leisure time before I search any jobs. |
21 |
10.7 |
|
|
Total |
197 |
100.0 |
|
Table 5
4.2.2 Self-esteem
|
Strong disagree |
Disagree |
Neutral |
Agree |
Strong agree |
|
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
Table 6
Even though most respondents feel different levels pressure, more of them have a positive mind toward their job searching process (Mean=3.67). Only 11.2% strongly disagree and 7.6% disagree that they do not have a positive mind.
Fewer respondents will never lose face just for finding a job (Mean = 2.685). 26.4% strongly disagree and 25.9% disagree that losing face just for finding a job is more important.
Fewer respondents believe that projecting their self-esteem is more important than finding a job (Mean = 2.706). 29.4% strongly disagree and 24.9% disagree that projecting their self-esteem was more important than finding a job.
Generally, they show a relatively low level of self-esteem and they believe that finding a job is more important than saving self-esteem.
|
Even under current circumstance, |
Strong disagree |
Disagree |
Neutral |
Agree |
Strong agree |
Mean |
|
I have a positive mind toward my job searching process |
11.2% |
7.6% |
13.7% |
38.6% |
28.9% |
3.67 |
|
I will never lose face just for finding a job |
26.4% |
25.9% |
14.2% |
19.8% |
13.7% |
2.685 |
|
Projecting my self-esteem is more important than finding a job |
29.4% |
24.9% |
9.6% |
17.8% |
18.3% |
2.706 |
Table 7
4.2.3 Self-efficacy
More respondents are confident that they can find their desired jobs (Mean = 3.913). 40.1% of respondents strongly agree with this and 28.1% of respondents agree with it.
More respondents believe that they capabilities are strong enough to overcome the problems caused by COVID-19 and help me find the job I desired (Mean = 3.447). This means that they are confident with their capabilities during the crisis. Only 12.7% of respondents strongly disagree with it and 6.6% of respondents disagree with it.
To be specific, more respondents believe that they have good interviewing skills and good resume that allow me to find the job I wanted, even under current circumstance (Mean 3.646). only 18.8% of respondents do not believe that their skills are enough for them to find the job they wanted (6.6% strongly disagree and 12.2% disagree).
The results of self-efficacy show that more respondents are confidence in their capabilities especially interviewing skills and good resume. This can explain that more respondents have a positive mind even during COVID-19.
Generally, these respondents show a high level of self-efficacy who have high level of confidence in finding a desire job, have enough capability to overcome COVID-19 problems and have good interviewing and good resume.
|
Even under current circumstance, |
Strong disagree |
Disagree |
Neutral |
Agree |
Strong agree |
Mean |
|
I am confident that I can find my desired jobs |
6.5% |
4.1 |
20.8 |
28.1 |
40.1 |
3.913 |
|
My capabilities are strong enough to overcome the problems caused by COVID-19 and help me find the job I desired. |
12.7 |
6.6 |
28.4 |
27.9 |
24.4 |
3.447 |
|
I have good interviewing skills and good resume that allow me to find the job I wanted |
6.6 |
12.2 |
23.4 |
25.9 |
32.2 |
3.646 |
Table 8
4.2.4 Perceived Control
36.6% of respondents believe that they are controlling their job searching process including 19.3% strongly agree and 17.3% agree. More respondents believe that they are controlling (Mean 2.985).
68.5% of respondents believe that their job searching process will go under their plan including 29.9% agree and strongly agree 38.6%. More respondents believe that they can work based on their plan (Mean = 3.817).
59.9% of respondents believe that they can address uncertainties such as unexpected challenges in the process of job seeking, including 30.5% agree and 29.4% strongly agree. More respondents perceive that they can control uncertainties (Mean =3.629).
Generally, these respondents have a good level of perceived control over their job searching process.
|
Even under current circumstance, |
Strong disagree |
Disagree |
Neutral |
Agree |
Strong agree |
Mean |
|
I believe that my job searching process is under my control. |
17.8 |
21.8 |
23.9 |
17.3 |
19.3 |
2.985 |
|
I feel that my job searching process will go under my plan. |
9.6
|
6.1 |
15.7 |
29.9 |
38.6 |
3.817 |
|
I feel that I can address uncertainties such as unexpected challenges in the process of job seeking. |
5.6 |
15.2 |
19.3 |
30.5 |
29.4 |
3.629 |
Table 9
Job Searching Behaviour
62.0% of respondents agree with their job searching process is good including 38.1% agree and 23.9% strongly agree. More respondents have found some jobs that they wanted (Mean = 3.18). Many respondents are making process (Mean =3.35).
|
|
Strong disagree |
Disagree |
Neutral |
Agree |
Strong agree |
Mean |
|
My job searching process is good. |
8.6 |
10.7 |
18.8 |
38.1 |
23.9 |
3.58 |
|
I have found some jobs that I wanted. |
14.7 |
10.2 |
37.1 |
18.3 |
19.8 |
3.18 |
|
I am making progress in finding the jobs I wanted. |
16.2 |
5.6 |
27.9 |
27.4 |
22.8 |
3.35 |
Table 10
4.3 Correlation Analysis
Given that the P-value is 0.622 (larger than 0.399), it is safe to say that there is a moderate correlation between job searching behaviour and self-esteem.
|
Correlations |
|||
|
Job Searching Behaviour |
Self-esteem |
||
|
Job Searching Behaviour |
Pearson Correlation |
1 |
0.622** |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
.000 |
||
|
N |
197 |
197 |
|
|
Self-esteem |
Pearson Correlation |
0.622** |
1 |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
0.000 |
||
|
N |
197 |
197 |
|
|
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). |
|||
Table 11
Also, the P-value is 0.483 larger than 0.399, suggesting a moderate correlation between job searching behaviour and self-efficacy.
|
Correlations |
|||
|
Job Searching Behaviour |
Self-efficacy |
||
|
Job Searching Behaviour |
Pearson Correlation |
1 |
0.483** |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
0.000 |
||
|
N |
197 |
197 |
|
|
Self-efficacy |
Pearson Correlation |
0.483** |
1 |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
0.000 |
||
|
N |
197 |
197 |
|
|
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). |
|||
Table 12
As table 12 shows, the P-value is 0.789 (larger than 0.399 but smaller than 0.799), showing that there is a moderate correlation between job searching behaviour and perceived control.
|
Correlations |
|||
|
Job Searching Behaviour |
Perceived control |
||
|
Job Searching Behaviour |
Pearson Correlation |
1 |
0.789** |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
.000 |
||
|
N |
197 |
197 |
|
|
Perceived control |
Pearson Correlation |
0.789** |
1 |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
0.000 |
||
|
N |
197 |
197 |
|
|
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). |
|||
Table 13
4.4 Regression Analysis
In Table 13, the R value is 0.821, suggesting a strong relationship between the independent variables and the dependent variables. R Square is 0.675, which means that 67.5% of variants in job searching behaviour can be predicted by perceive control, self-esteem and self-efficacy.
|
Model Summary |
||||
|
R |
R Square |
Adjusted R Square |
Std. Error of the Estimate |
|
|
0.821a |
0.675 |
0.670 |
0.62039 |
|
|
a. Predictors: (Constant), Perceived control, Self-Esteem, Self-efficacy |
||||
Table 14
The P-value in Table 14 is 0.000, suggesting a significant relationship between independent variable and dependent variables.
|
ANOVAa |
||||||
|
|
Sum of Squares |
df |
Mean Square |
F |
Sig. |
|
|
|
Regression |
154.110 |
3 |
51.370 |
133.468 |
0.000b |
|
Residual |
74.283 |
193 |
0.385 |
|||
|
Total |
228.394 |
196 |
||||
|
a. Dependent Variable: Job Searching Behaviour |
||||||
|
b. Predictors: (Constant), Perceived control, Self-Esteem, Self-efficacy |
||||||
Table 15
Self-esteem and perceived control have a significant relationship with job searching behaviour (P-value < 0.05). The relationship between self-efficacy and job searching is insignificant (P-value > 0.05).
|
Coefficientsa |
||||||
|
Model |
Unstandardized Coefficients |
Standardized Coefficients |
t |
Sig. |
||
|
B |
Std. Error |
Beta |
||||
|
1 |
(Constant) |
0.125 |
0.192 |
0.649 |
0.517 |
|
|
Self-Esteem |
0.209 |
0.049 |
0.225 |
4.239 |
0.000 |
|
|
Self-efficacy |
0.100 |
0.055 |
0.090 |
1.837 |
0.068 |
|
|
Perceived control |
0.647 |
0.053 |
0.622 |
12.220 |
0.000 |
|
|
a. Dependent Variable: Job Searching Behaviour |
||||||
Table 16
Regression Equation = 0.125 + 0.209 (self-esteem) + 0.100 (self-efficiency) + 0.647 (perceived control)
5.0 Chapter Five - Discussion
What is self-esteem, job search self-efficacy and perceived control of UK graduates in during COVID-19?
Previous studies found that external factors can compromise job seekers’ self-esteem and self-efficacy in job searching (Eby and Buch, 1995). However, this research finds that COVID-19 did not strongly compromise UK graduates’ self-esteem and self-efficacy.
How do self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control affect job searching behaviour of UK graduates in the context of COVID-19?
This research finds a moderate relationship between job searching behaviour and self-esteem. This finding is supported by many previous studies (Ellis and Taylor, 1983; Schwab et al., 1987; and schmit et al., 1993).
The research shows the evidence suggesting a moderate correlation between job searching behaviour and self-efficacy. This finding is consistent with Bandura (1997)’s argument that job search self-efficacy is a prominent factor affecting job search behaviour. Kanfer and Hulin (1985) find that that job search self-efficacy has a positive relationship with job search behaviours, which also supports this research’s findings.
This research finds a moderate correlation between job searching behaviour and perceived control. This finding aligns with Feather (1992)’s argument that perceived control could be related with job-seeking behaviour. Furthermore, Wanberg (1997) agree that perceived situational control positively affects job-seeking behaviour.
6.0 Chapter Six - Conclusions
6.1 Summary
This research finds the factors affecting job searching behaviours including self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control. Also, it shows the evidences that self-esteem and perceived control have a significant relationship with job searching behaviours.
Meanwhile, the research discovers that more UK graduates are good in terms of self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control. They have confidence in finding their desirable jobs even during the COVID-19. However, UK graduates show a relatively low level of self-esteem and they believe that finding a job is more important than saving self-esteem. UK graduates show a high level of self-efficacy who have high level of confidence in finding a desire job, have enough capability to overcome COVID-19 problems and have good interviewing and good resume. Moreover, the UK graduates have a good level of perceived control over their job searching process. Therefore, the COVID-19 has not significantly negatively affected UK graduates’ self-esteem, self-efficiency and perceived control. They still maintain a proper level of self-esteem, self-efficiency and perceived control
|
Variables |
Correlation |
Regression |
Hypothesis |
UK Graduates |
|
Self-esteem |
Moderate |
Significant |
H1 is accepted |
Relatively low |
|
Self-efficacy |
Moderate |
Insignificant |
H1 is accepted |
High level |
|
Perceived control |
Moderate |
Significant |
H1 is accepted |
Good level
|
Table 17
The result of this research shows that self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control are important for UK graduates to have good job searching behaviours during COVID-19. This may be more practical to put finding a job into the first place rather than saving self-esteem during the crisis. Also, UK graduates should have a positive mind, develop their employment capabilities, interview skills and resume. More importantly, they should develop an achievable, workable and realistic employment plan for their job searching behaviour.
6.2 Recommendations for Further Research
This research adopts a positivism philosophy following questionnaires and quantitative analysis to study job searching behaviour. However, positivism has limitations to study human behaviour. Further research is advised to adopt interpretivism to discover the variables affecting job searching behaviour. By interviews, it can understand how exactly UK graduates to search and find their jobs. Meanwhile, this research finds that the three independent variables can explain 67.5% of variants in job searching behaviour. The further research is expected to find out the rest of variables that can explain the 32.5% of variants. Meanwhile, further research can investigate how to help UK graduates to find jobs based their self-esteem, self-efficacy and perceived control.
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Appendix- Questionnaires
Dear respondents
I am student who are collecting data for my final year dissertation. This research aims to study the recession caused by COVID-19 on graduates’ job searching behaviour. The expected results show the impacts of the coronavirus on self-esteem, job search self-efficacy, perceived control and thus on job searching behaviour. Based on the results, the research can offer graduates and employers suggestions so as to help them and contribute to employment environment in the UK.
What is your gender?
· Male
· Female
How old are you?
· 21
· 22
· 23
· 24
· Over 24
About your graduation….
I have graduated few months age
I am going to graduate within month
What is your expected income from your first job?
£2,000 will be enough fine for me
£2,001– £ 2,500 will be enough fine for me
£2,501 – £ 3,000 will be enough fine for me
I expect over £3,000
Do you have work experience before?
Yes, I have very much
Yes, I have it
Yes, but only a little
No, not at all
How much pressure do you feel in the context of economic recession caused by COVID-19?
· Not at all
· A little pressure
· It’s hard to say3
· I’m pressed
· Heavy pressure
What is your attitude toward employment?
· I have to find a job as soon as possible.
· I am not rush.
· I may take some leisure time before I search any jobs.
As we known, COVID-19 is causing economic challenges and difficulties to job market. What is your reaction and opinion? Please read the following statement and choose the option which can show your opinion most.
Self-esteem
I have a positive mind toward my job searching process, even under current circumstance.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
I will never lose face just for finding a job, even under current circumstance.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
Projecting my self-esteem is more important than finding a job, even under current circumstance.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
Job Search Self-efficacy
I am confident that I can find my desired jobs, even under current circumstances.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
My capabilities are strong enough to overcome the problems caused by COVID-19 and help me find the job I desired.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
I have good interviewing skills and good resume that allow me to find the job I wanted, even under current circumstance.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
Perceived Control
I believe that my job searching process is under my control, even under current circumstance.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
I feel that my job searching process will go under my plan, even under current circumstance
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
I feel that I can address uncertainties such as unexpected challenges in the process of job seeking, even under current circumstance.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
Job Searching Behaviour
My job searching process is good.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
I have found some jobs that I wanted.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
I am making progress in finding the jobs I wanted.
· Strongly disagree
· Disagree
· Neutral
· Agree
· Strongly agree
